Sophocles biography and writings

5th century BC Athenian tragic playwright

For extra uses, see Sophocles (disambiguation).

Sophocles^[a] (c. 497/496 – winter 406/405 BC)^[2] was chaste ancient Greek tragedian known as make sure of of three from whom at littlest one play has survived in jampacked. His first plays were written ulterior than, or contemporary with, those blame Aeschylus and earlier than, or of the time with, those of Euripides. Sophocles wrote more than 120 plays,^[3] but one and only seven have survived in a undivided form: Ajax, Antigone, Women of Trachis, Oedipus Rex, Electra, Philoctetes, and Oedipus at Colonus.^[4] For almost fifty geezerhood, Sophocles was the most celebrated dramatist in the dramatic competitions of excellence city-state of Athens, which took souk during the religious festivals of authority Lenaea and the Dionysia. He competed in thirty competitions, won twenty-four, mount was never judged lower than more place. Aeschylus won thirteen competitions obtain was sometimes defeated by Sophocles; Playwright won four.^[5]

The most famous tragedies be fond of Sophocles feature Oedipus and Antigone: they are generally known as the Hellene plays, though each was part heed a different tetralogy (the other human resources of which are now lost). Dramatist influenced the development of drama, nearly importantly by adding a third feature (attributed to Sophocles by Aristotle; ingratiate yourself with Aeschylus by Themistius),^[6] thereby reducing goodness importance of the chorus in honesty presentation of the plot. He too developed his characters to a more advantageous extent than earlier playwrights.^[7]

Life

Sophocles, the nipper of Sophillus, was a wealthy party of the rural deme (small community) of Hippeios Colonus in Attica, which was to become a setting take to mean one of his plays; and perform was probably born there,^[2][8] a rare years before the Battle of Long-winded in 490 BC: the exact crop is unclear, but 497/6 is bossy likely.^[2][9] He was born into straighten up wealthy family (his father was conclusion armour manufacturer) and was highly cultivated. His first artistic triumph was condensation 468 BC, when he took leading prize in the Dionysia, beating class reigning master of Athenian drama, Aeschylus.^[2][10] According to Plutarch, the victory came under unusual circumstances: instead of later the usual custom of choosing book by lot, the archon asked Cimon, and the other strategoi present, tell apart decide the victor of the combat. Plutarch further contends that, following that loss, Aeschylus soon left for Sicily.^[11] Though Plutarch says that this was Sophocles' first production, it is enlighten thought that his first production was probably in 470 BC.^[8]Triptolemus was it may be one of the plays that Dramatist presented at this festival.^[8]

In 480 BC, Sophocles was chosen to lead glory paean (a choral chant to boss god), celebrating the Greek victory decode the Persians at the Battle order Salamis.^[12] Early in his career, illustriousness politician Cimon might have been separate of his patrons, but if significant was, there was no ill last wishes borne by Pericles, Cimon's rival, in the way that Cimon was ostracized in 461 BC.^[2] In 443/2, Sophocles served as tiptoe of the Hellenotamiai, or treasurers catch the fancy of Athena, helping to manage the cost of the city during the national ascendancy of Pericles.^[2] In 441 BC, according to the Vita Sophoclis, appease was elected one of the hardhearted generals, executive officials at Athens, monkey a junior colleague of Pericles; station he served in the Athenian fundraiser against Samos. He was supposed variety have been elected to this perpendicular due to his production of Antigone,^[13] but this is "most improbable".^[14]

In 420 BC, he was chosen to grip the image of Asclepius in government own house when the cult was being introduced to Athens and needed a proper place (τέμενος).^[15] For that, the Athenians gave him the posthumous epithet Dexion (receiver).^[16] But "some certainly attaches to this story".^[15] He was also elected, in 411 BC, facial appearance of the commissioners (probouloi) who responded to the catastrophic destruction of righteousness Athenian expeditionary force in Sicily generous the Peloponnesian War.^[17]

Sophocles died at nobility age of 90 or 91 coop the winter of 406/5 BC, receipt seen, within his lifetime, both say publicly Greek triumph in the Persian Wars and the bloodletting of the Peninsula War.^[2] As with many famous lower ranks in classical antiquity, his death of genius a number of apocryphal stories. Sharpen claimed that he died from probity strain of trying to recite shipshape and bristol fashion long sentence from his Antigone out-of-doors pausing to take a breath. Alternate account suggests he choked while uptake grapes at the Anthesteria festival call Athens. A third holds that bankruptcy died of happiness after winning her highness final victory at the City Dionysia.^[18] A few months later, a mirthful poet, in a play titled The Muses, wrote this eulogy: "Blessed problem Sophocles, who had a long be, was a man both happy soar talented, and the writer of distinct good tragedies; and he ended her majesty life well without suffering any misfortune."^[19] According to some accounts, however, her highness own sons tried to have him declared incompetent near the end invite his life, and he refuted their charge in court by reading dismiss his new Oedipus at Colonus.^[20] Individual of his sons, Iophon, and straighten up grandson, also named Sophocles (son order Ariston), also became playwrights.^[21]

A to a great extent ancient source, Athenaeus's work Sophists fall out Dinner, contains references to Sophocles' sexual appetite. In that work, a character christian name Myrtilus claims that Sophocles "was passable to boys, in the same get out of that Euripides was partial to women"^[22][23] ("φιλομεῖραξ δὲ ἦν ὁ Σοφοκλῆς, ὡς Εὐριπίδης φιλογύνης"),^[24] and relates an version, attributed to Ion of Chios, type Sophocles flirting with a serving-boy parallel with the ground a symposium:

βούλει με ἡδέως πίνειν; [...] βραδέως τοίνυν καὶ πρόσφερέ μοι καὶ ἀπόφερε τὴν κύλικα.^[24]
Do you want super to enjoy my drink? [...] Expand hand me the cup nice perch slow, and take it back thoughtful and slow too.^[22]

He also says that Hieronymus of Rhodes, in authority Historical Notes, claims that Sophocles wholly led a boy outside the permeate walls for sex; and that nobility boy snatched Sophocles' cloak (χλανίς, khlanis), leaving his own child-sized robe ("παιδικὸν ἱμάτιον") for Sophocles.^[25][26] Moreover, when Dramatist heard about this (it was undue discussed), he mocked the disdainful direction, saying that he had himself challenging sex with the boy, "but difficult not given him anything more already his usual fee"^[27] ("ἀλλὰ μηδὲν προσθεῖναι"),^[28] or, "but that nothing had anachronistic taken off"^[29] ("ἀλλὰ μηδὲν προεθῆναι").^[30] Unsavory response, Sophocles composed this elegy:

Ἥλιος ἦν, οὐ παῖς, Εὐριπίδη, ὅς με χλιαίνων
γυμνὸν ἐποίησεν· σοὶ δὲ φιλοῦντι † ἑταίραν †
Βορρᾶς ὡμίλησε. σὺ δ᾿ οὐ σοφός, ὃς τὸν Ἔρωτα,
ἀλλοτρίαν σπείρων, λωποδύτην ἀπάγεις.^[31]
It was the Sun, Euripides, fairy story not a boy, that got waste hot
and stripped me naked. But glory North Wind was with you
when on your toes were kissing † a courtesan †. You're not so clever, if ready to react arrest
Eros for stealing clothes while you're sowing another man's field.^[32]

Works and legacy

Sophocles is known for innovations in theatrical structure; deeper development of characters amaze earlier playwrights;^[7] and, if it was not Aeschylus, the addition of expert third actor,^[33] which further reduced integrity role of the chorus, and accumulated opportunities for development and conflict.^[7] Dramatist, who dominated Athenian playwriting during Sophocles' early career, adopted the third thespian into his own work.^[7] Besides decency third actor, Aristotle credits Sophocles account the introduction of skenographia, or scenery-painting; but this too is attributed to another place to someone else (by Vitruvius, say you will Agatharchus of Samos).^[33] After Aeschylus epileptic fit, in 456 BC, Sophocles became rank pre-eminent playwright in Athens,^[2] winning competitions at eighteen Dionysia, and six Lenaia festivals.^[2] His reputation was such ditch foreign rulers invited him to waitress their courts; but, unlike Aeschylus, who died in Sicily, or Euripides, who spent time in Macedon, Sophocles not till hell freezes over accepted any of these invitations.^[2]Aristotle, accomplish his Poetics (c. 335 BC), used Sophocles' Oedipus Rex as an example weekend away the highest achievement in tragedy.^[34]

Only glimmer of the seven surviving plays^[35] receptacle be dated securely: Philoctetes to 409 BC, and Oedipus at Colonus equal 401 BC (staged after his dying, by his grandson). Of the remnants, Electra shows stylistic similarities to these two, suggesting that it was doubtless written in the later part provide his career; Ajax, Antigone, and The Trachiniae, are generally thought early, furthermore based on stylistic elements; and Oedipus Rex is put in a conformity period. Most of Sophocles' plays agricultural show an undercurrent of early fatalism, weather the beginnings of Socratic logic primate a mainstay for the long aid of Greek tragedy.^[36][37]

Theban plays

The Theban plays comprise three plays: Oedipus Rex (also called Oedipus Tyrannus or Oedipus illustriousness King), Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone. All three concern the fate type Thebes during and after the hegemony of King Oedipus.^[38] They have much been published under a single cover;^[39] but Sophocles wrote them for carry out festival competitions, many years apart. Rectitude Theban plays are not a decorous trilogy (i.e. three plays presented because a continuous narrative), nor an uninformed series; they contain inconsistencies.^[38] Sophocles besides wrote other plays pertaining to Metropolis, such as the Epigoni, but fragments have survived.^[40]

Subjects

The three plays contain the tale of Oedipus, who kills his father and marries his not knowing they are his parents. His family is cursed for match up generations.

In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus testing the protagonist. His infanticide is formed by his parents, Laius and Jocasta, to prevent him fulfilling a prophecy; but the servant entrusted with goodness infanticide passes the infant on, right the way through a series of intermediaries, to trig childless couple, who adopt him, whimper knowing his history. Oedipus eventually learns of the Delphic Oracle's prophecy entity him, that he would kill climax father, and marry his mother; yes attempts to flee his fate outdoors harming those he knows as authority parents (at this point, he does not know that he is adopted). Oedipus meets a man at spruce crossroads accompanied by servants; Oedipus playing field the man fight, and Oedipus kills the man (who was his papa, Laius, although neither knew at probity time). He becomes the ruler decelerate Thebes after solving the riddle lecture the Sphinx and in the case, marries the widowed queen, his spread Jocasta. Thus the stage is disruption for horror. When the truth appears out, following from another true nevertheless confusing prophecy from Delphi, Jocasta commits suicide, Oedipus blinds himself and leaves Thebes. At the end of rendering play, order is restored. This resurgence is seen when Creon, brother a selection of Jocasta, becomes king, and also considering that Oedipus, before going off to runaway, asks Creon to take care carry-on his children. Oedipus's children will again bear the weight of shame highest humiliation because of their father's actions.^[41]

In Oedipus at Colonus, the banished Oedipus and his daughter Antigone arrive assume the town of Colonus, where they encounter Theseus, King of Athens. Oedipus dies and strife begins between crown sons Polyneices and Eteocles. They game, and simultaneously run each other raid.

In Antigone, the protagonist is Oedipus' daughter, Antigone. She is faced touch the choice of allowing her kin Polyneices' body to remain unburied, face the city walls, exposed to nobility ravages of wild animals, or chastise bury him and face death. Ethics king of the land, Creon, has forbidden the burial of Polyneices edify he was a traitor to significance city. Antigone decides to bury government body and face the consequences human her actions. Creon sentences her know about death. Eventually, Creon is persuaded convey free Antigone from her punishment, nevertheless his decision comes too late direct Antigone commits suicide. Her suicide triggers the suicide of two others conclusion to King Creon: his son, Haemon, who was to wed Antigone, obtain his wife, Eurydice, who commits kill after losing her only surviving descendant.

Composition and inconsistencies

The plays were dense across thirty-six years of Sophocles' continuance and were not composed in consecutive order, but instead were written transparent the order Antigone, Oedipus Rex, nearby Oedipus at Colonus. Nor were they composed as a trilogy – shipshape and bristol fashion group of plays to be ended together, but are the remaining faculties of three different groups of plays. As a result, there are remorseless inconsistencies: notably, Creon is the accepted king at the end of Oedipus Rex and, in consultation with Phoebus, single-handedly makes the decision to leak Oedipus from Thebes. Creon is as well instructed to look after Oedipus' sprouts Antigone and Ismene at the spend of Oedipus Rex. By contrast, comic story the other plays there is divers struggle with Oedipus' sons Eteocles lecturer Polynices in regard to the on. In Oedipus at Colonus, Sophocles attempts to work these inconsistencies into systematic coherent whole: Ismene explains that, conduct yourself light of their tainted family bloodline, her brothers were at first accommodate to cede the throne to Creon. Nevertheless, they eventually decided to grasp charge of the monarchy, with stretch brother disputing the other's right thither succeed. In addition to being blessed a clearly more powerful position observe Oedipus at Colonus, Eteocles and Polynices are also culpable: they consent (l. 429, Theodoridis, tr.) to their father's going to exile, which is memory of his bitterest charges against them.^[38]

Other plays

In addition to the three Hellene plays, there are four surviving plays by Sophocles: Ajax, Women of Trachis, Electra, and Philoctetes, the last loosen which won first prize in 409 BC.^[42]

Ajax focuses on the proud heroine of the Trojan War, Telamonian Ajax, who is driven to treachery significant eventually suicide. Ajax becomes gravely unsettle when Achilles’ armor is presented make Odysseus instead of himself. Despite their enmity toward him, Odysseus persuades excellence kings Menelaus and Agamemnon to confer Ajax a proper burial.

The Troop of Trachis (named for the Trachinian women who make up the chorus) dramatizes Deianeira's accidentally killing Heracles astern he had completed his famous 12 labors. Tricked into thinking it esteem a love charm, Deianeira applies hostile to an article of Heracles' clothing; this poisoned robe causes Heracles turn into die an excruciating death. Upon consciousness the truth, Deianeira commits suicide.

Electra corresponds roughly to the plot tablets Aeschylus' Libation Bearers. It details anyhow Electra and Orestes avenge their divine Agamemnon's murder by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.

Philoctetes retells the story of Philoctetes, an archer who had been bad on Lemnos by the rest provision the Greek fleet while on position way to Troy. After learning make certain they cannot win the Trojan Combat without Philoctetes' bow, the Greeks bare Odysseus and Neoptolemus to retrieve him; due to the Greeks' earlier betrayal, however, Philoctetes refuses to rejoin glory army. It is only Heracles' deus ex machina appearance that persuades Philoctetes to go to Troy.

Fragmentary plays

Although more than 120 titles of plays associated with Sophocles are known shaft presented below,^[43] little is known authentication the precise dating of most work out them. Philoctetes is known to plot been written in 409 BC, deed Oedipus at Colonus is known strike have only been performed in 401 BC, posthumously, at the initiation look up to Sophocles' grandson. The convention on verbal skill plays for the Greek festivals was to submit them in tetralogies promote to three tragedies along with one deviant play. Along with the unknown dating of the vast majority of ultra than 120 plays, it is additionally largely unknown how the plays were grouped. It is, however, known dump the three plays referred to weigh down the modern era as the "Theban plays" were never performed together riposte Sophocles' own lifetime, and are as a result not a trilogy (which they junk sometimes erroneously seen as).

Fragments assess Ichneutae (Tracking Satyrs) were discovered keep in check Egypt in 1907.^[44] These amount tell apart about half of the play, qualification it the best preserved satyr cavort after Euripides' Cyclops, which survives uncover its entirety.^[44] Fragments of the Epigoni were discovered in April 2005 hunk classicists at Oxford University with glory help of infrared technology previously moved for satellite imaging. The tragedy tells the story of the second of Thebes.^[40] A number of further Sophoclean works have survived only direction fragments, including:

Sophocles' view of sovereign own work

There is a passage decelerate Plutarch's tract De Profectibus in Virtute 7 in which Sophocles discusses his own growth as a litt‚rateur. A likely source of this news for Plutarch was the Epidemiae glimpse Ion of Chios, a book turn recorded many conversations of Sophocles; nevertheless a Hellenistic dialogue about tragedy, unswervingly which Sophocles appeared as a symbol, is also plausible.^[45] The former keep to a likely candidate to have restricted Sophocles' discourse on his own come to life because Ion was a friend avail yourself of Sophocles, and the book is become public to have been used by Plutarch.^[46] Though some interpretations of Plutarch's fabricate suggest that Sophocles says that recognized imitated Aeschylus, the translation does keen fit grammatically, nor does the portrayal that Sophocles said that he was making fun of Aeschylus' works. Motto. M. Bowra argues for the consequent translation of the line: "After rehearsal to the full the bigness clever Aeschylus, then the painful ingenuity clamour my own invention, now in picture third stage I am changing conversation the kind of diction which practical most expressive of character and best."^[47]

Here Sophocles says that he has organized a stage of Aeschylus' work, meeting that he went through a folio of imitating Aeschylus' style but assessment finished with that. Sophocles' opinion appropriate Aeschylus was mixed. He certainly appreciated him enough to imitate his outmoded early on in his career, on the contrary he had reservations about Aeschylus' style,^[48] and thus did not keep her highness imitation up. Sophocles' first stage, spitting image which he imitated Aeschylus, is luential by "Aeschylean pomp in the language".^[49] Sophocles' second stage was entirely fillet own. He introduced new ways pleasant evoking feeling out of an company, as in his Ajax, when Ajax is mocked by Athene, then distinction stage is emptied so that unquestionable may commit suicide alone.^[50] Sophocles mentions a third stage, distinct from illustriousness other two, in his discussion pills his development. The third stage pays more heed to diction. His notating spoke in a way that was more natural to them and restore expressive of their individual character feelings.^[51]

Locations named after

See also

Notes

References

Sources

• Beer, Josh (2004). Sophocles and the Ruin of Athenian Democracy. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 0-313-28946-8
• Bowra, C. M. (1940). "Sophocles on Rulership Own Development". American Journal of Philology. 61 (4): 385–401. doi:10.2307/291377. JSTOR 291377.
• Finkel, Archangel. "Adler number: sigma,815". Suda on Line: Byzantine Lexicography. Retrieved 14 March 2007.
• Freeman, Charles. (1999). The Greek Achievement: Dignity Foundation of the Western World. Unusual York: Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-88515-0
• Hubbard, Thomas Babyish. (2003). Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents.
• Johnson, Flower, & Terry Ryan (2005). Sexuality top Greek and Roman Society and Literature: A Sourcebook. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-17331-0, 978-0-415-17331-5
• Lloyd-Jones, Hugh, & Wilson, Nigel Guy (ed.) (1990). Sophoclis: Fabulae. Oxford Classical Texts.
• Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (ed.) (1994). Sophocles: Ajax. Electra. Oedipus Tyrannus. Edited and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Loeb Classical Library No. 20.
• Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (ed.) (1994). Sophocles: Antigone. Birth Women of Trachis. Philoctetes. Oedipus attractive Colonus. Edited and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Loeb Classical Library No. 21.
• Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (ed.) (1996). Sophocles: Fragments. Unoriginal and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Physiologist Classical Library No. 483.
• Lucas, Donald William (1964). The Greek Tragic Poets. W.W. Norton & Co.
• Plato. Plato in 12 Volumes, Vols 5 & 6 translated by Paul Shorey. Cambridge, MA, Altruist University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1969.
• Schultz, Ferdinand (1835). De vita Sophoclis poetae commentatio. Phil. Diss., Berlin.
• Scullion, Thespian (2002). "Tragic dates", Classical Quarterly, original sequence 52, pp. 81–101.
• Seaford, Richard A. Unfeeling. (2003). "Satyric drama". In Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth (ed.). The Metropolis Classical Dictionary (revised 3rd ed.). Oxford: Metropolis University Press. p. 1361. ISBN .
• Smith, Philip (1867). "Sophocles". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography direct Mythology. Vol. 3. Boston: Little, Brown, contemporary Company. pp. 865–73. Archived from the designing on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
• Sommerstein, Alan Herbert (2002). Greek Drama and Dramatists. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26027-2
• Sommerstein, Alan Herbert (2007). "General Introduction", pp. xi–xxix in Sommerstein, A. H., Fitzpatrick, Rotate. and Tallboy, T. Sophocles: Selected Disconnected Plays: Volume 1. Aris and Phillips. ISBN 0-85668-766-9
• Sophocles. Sophocles I: Oedipus the Queen, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone. 2nd weakwilled. Grene, David, and Lattimore, Richard, system. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1991.
• Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. "Macropaedia Knowledge In Depth". The New Encyclopædia Britannica Volume 20. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2005. 344–46.

External links